Environmental Impacts Of The Desalination Process Environmental Sciences Essay

More and more importance is being given to desalinization of saltwater as H2O resources are rapidly being used up. Apart from the fact that it solves H2O deficit in some parts, desalinization is besides associated with environmental impacts. For case, it has been deemed responsible for change of the marine ecosystem in related countries. There are presently a batch of active desalinization workss around the universe. Five journal articles will be used as beginnings for environmental impacts of desalinization. The effects of the byproduct discharged from desalinization workss which affect aquatic life in assorted portion of the universe will be discussed. Furthermore, possible emanation of nursery gases by desalinization workss will besides be investigated. Each primary article will be evaluated on a scaling system of 1* to 10* where 1* agencies that the article had small relevancy to the research rubric, and 10* demoing entire relevancy. Elevated discharge of seawater as byproduct due to increased sum of saltwater desalinization could perchance impact ecosystems. In this survey, the research workers investigated the consequence of seawater and hence the impact of desalinization on a hayfield of the seagrass Posidoia Oceanic which has been exposed to brine discharge for a clip oversight of more than 6 old ages. A comparative field survey was conducted whereby environmental factors ( salt, sum of dissolved foods, dissolved inorganic C and pH ) , meadow features ( screen and shoot denseness ) and works traits ( morphometrics, N and P content in the tissues ) were measured in an undisturbed country of shallow P. Oceanic hayfield and in an country of the hayfield having the seawater discharge. The H2O samples collected at the discharge site had a higher salt and higher sums of dissolved inorganic C as compared to the undisturbed country or the mention site. The screen and shoot denseness of the hayfield were determined to be approximately the same at both sites. The seawater discharge caused of import alterations in the works traits such as increased N content in the works tissues, lower glutamine synthetase activity, lower content of non-structural saccharides and besides debasement of the works wellness as compared to the workss in the mention site. The research workers hence concluded that P. Oceania is sensitive to the high salt and eutrophication caused by seawater discharge. Keywords: discharge, environmental factors, glutamine systhetase, salt, eutrophication Gacia, E, Invers, O, Manzanera, M, Ballesteros, E & A ; Romero, J 2007. ImpactA of theA brineA fromA a desalinization plantA onA a shallow seagrassA ( Posidonia oceanica ) meadow.A Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 72: 579-590.Rating: iiiiiiiiStack emanations from desalinization workss: a parametric sensitiveness analysis for exposure appraisal Despite being one of the chief techniques used in order satisfy the high demands of drinkable H2O, desalinization is besides associated with environmental impacts such as air pollution. The purpose of this survey was to measure the air emanations from desalinization workss utilizing a simulating theoretical account. The Industrial Source Complex-3 theoretical account was used to carry on air scattering simulations in order to measure the impact of sulfur dioxide stack emanations from a combined H2O distillment and power coevals works on air quality. SO2 concentrations at antecedently defined location of receptors were measured under different instances of meteoric state of affairs such as air currents velocity and humidness. A parametric sensitiveness analysis was conducted to measure the consequence of the input parametric quantities on the fake consequences for near-field and far-field receptors. Different scenarios produced different sum of SO2 recorded and from the fake consequen ces, it was determined that the most of import parametric quantity impacting SO2 concentrations at the receptors include wind velocity, stack tallness, temperature and speed. The parametric sensitiveness analysis showed that stable atmospheric conditions and low air current caused the worst exposure degree of SO2. The SO2 concentrations recorded both at near-field and far-field receptors exceeded the wellness criterion developed by the World Health Organisation under most scenarios. Keywords: drinkable H2O, scattering, sulfur dioxide, distillment, receptors, atmospheric I. Alameddine, ME 2005. Stack emanations from desalinization workss: a parametric sensitiveness analysis for exposure appraisal. Desalination 177: 15-29.Rating: iiiiiiDesalination engineering waste watercourses: Consequence of pH and salt on metamorphosis of marine microbic gatherings More and more attending is being given presents to the possible negative impacts of the desalinization engineering on the environment. This survey examines the consequence of salt and pH on the bacterial production rate of marine microbic gatherings at 600m below sea surface degree and at one ambiance. Water samples were collected at three different locations, Delaware Bay, Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean and a refractometer was used to find the salt while a pH metre was used to find the pH of the H2O. Bacterial production rate was measured utilizing the leucine incorporation method. Pressurisation and depressurisation experiments were set up in order to imitate the effects of a hydrate-based desalinization on the microbic gathering in outflowing waste watercourse. For samples from the Delaware Bay, as salt increased from 29.5 to 60 PSU, there was a 57 % lessening in heterotrophic bacterial production. A bead of pH from 8.00 to 4.88 caused a 96 % lessening in bacterial production. S imilar consequences were obtained for the Atlantic Ocean H2O samples. Pacific Ocean H2O samples that were pressurised showed a lessening of 40 % in bacterial production after 1hr decompression while replicate samples showed a 43 % addition in bacterial production with addition in salt after 24 hr decompression. The addition in bacterial production could to be due to community version. Heterotrophic bacterial production rate therefore decreases with increasing salt and diminishing pH. Keywords: refractometer, pressurisation, depressurisation, wastewater, decompression, heterotrophic Montgomery, MT, Boyd, TJ, Osburn, CL, Plummer, RE, Masutani, SM & A ; Coffin, RB 2009. Desalination engineering waste watercourses: Consequence of pH and salt on metamorphosis of marine microbic gatherings. Desalination 249: 861-864. Rating: iiiiiii Chlorophyll and plankton of the Gulf coastal Waterss of Saudi Arabia surrounding a desalinization works Phyto- and Zooplankton both play an of import function in the marine ecosystem as primary and secondary manufacturers severally. The current survey was carried out to look into the relationship between fluctuation in chlorophyll and plankton production due to a desalinization works operation near Al-Jubail in the coastal Waterss of Saudi Arabia. Areas concerned by the survey were the consumption and discharge zones at the works. Surface and bottom H2O samples were obtained to find the chlorophyll pigments and H2O quality factors. Analysis of chlorophyll pigments a, B and degree Celsius was made utilizing the spectrophotometric method while Plankton samples were taken utilizing a Nansen plankton cyberspace and examined utilizing by standard processs. The research was done on based a seasonal, one-year, and inter-annual survey. The biological status of the entry and release sites stayed for the most portion rich and stable. The figures on chlorophyll pigments revealed that the lasting harvest of phytoplankton remained striking during most of the seasons. Research workers concluded that ecological factors such as temperature and conduction did non move as confining factor for growing of phytoplankton. They besides concluded that the discharge from the works did non encroach upon the general species fundamental law. Keywords: ecosystem, discharge zone, pigments, spectrophotometric Abdul Azis, PK, Al-Tisan, IA, Daili, MA, Green, TN, Dalvi, AGI & A ; Javeed, MA 2003. Chlorophyll and plankton of the Gulf coastal Waterss of Saudi Arabia surrounding a desalinization works. Desalination 154: 291-302.Rating: iiiiiiiPreliminary consequences of the monitoring of the seawater discharge produced by the SWRO desalinization works of Alicante ( SE Spain ) Desalination of saltwater by contrary osmosis has become a widely used method but the environmental impacts caused by seawater as the byproduct can non be disregarded. The purpose of this article is to supervise the seawater discharge from the Alicante saltwater desalinization works and find its spacial and seasonal distribution. Furthermore, the possible impact of the discharge on hayfields of Posidonia Oceania and communities of echinoderm will be quantified. Salinity was measured at more than hundred sampling Stationss at the seawater discharge site. The geoeas plan was used in order to obtain the graphical spacial representation of the salt informations. New and dead shoots of the P. Oceanic, every bit good as denseness of echinoderms were estimated at three different Stationss, one being in forepart of the discharge site of the desalinization works and the two others being controls. Highest salt was found to be at the thermocline degree. Dilution at the discharge topographic poi nt was found to be fast but a higher stableness was obtained far from the discharge. Additions of salt were observed far off from the discharge topographic point. There was an absence of echinoderms in forepart of the desalinization works but a considerate sum at a northern vicinity where the seawater degree is low. Number of new shoots of P. Oceania was determined to be higher than sum of dead shoots but with deteriorated works wellness in the hayfields found in forepart of the desalinization works. Absence of echinoderms acted as an index of the effects of brine discharge of the works on marine communities. Therefore, the consequences obtained suggested that the dilution of the seawater discharged could be lower than the recognized degree which may impact Marine ecosystems. Keywords: echinoderm, thermocline degree, Posidonia Oceanic, Marine ecosystemsFernandez-Torquemada, Y, Sanchez-Lizaso, JL & A ; Gonzalez-Correa, JM 2005. Preliminary consequences of the monitoring of the seawater discharge produced by the SWRO desalinization works of the Alicante ( SE Spain ) . Desalination 182: 395-402.Rating: iiiiiiImpact of the seawater from a desalinization works on a shallow seagrass ( Posidonia oceanica ) hayfield Abstraction Although saltwater desalinization has increased signii ¬?cantly over recent decennaries, small attending has been paid to the impact of the chief byproduct ( hypersaline H2O: seawater ) on ecosystems. In the Mediterranean, potentially the most affected ecosystems are hayfields of the endemic seagrass Posidonia Oceania. We studied the consequence of seawater on a shallow P. Oceania hayfield exposed to change by reversal osmosis seawater discharge for more than 6 old ages. P. oceanica proved to be really sensitive to both eutrophication and high salts derived from the seawater discharge. Affected workss showed high air plant burden and N content in the foliages, high frequences of mortification Markss, low entire non-structural saccharides and low glutamine synthetase activity, compared to command workss. However, there was no indicant of extended diminution of the affected hayfield. This is likely due to its really shallow state of affairs, which consequences in high incident radiat ion every bit good as fast dilution and scattering of the seawater plume. Stack emanations from desalinization workss: a parametric sensitiveness analysis for exposure appraisal Abstraction The desalinization market has been continuously turning to augment conventional H2O resources in waterless and semi-arid parts that are sing population growing, betterments in life-style, increased economic activity and increased taint of bing H2O supplies. The debut of desalinization workss is necessarily associated with several possible environmental impacts including possible air pollution. The present survey focuses on measure uping air emanations ensuing from desalinization workss and their possible impacts utilizing a instance survey attack for an bing combined power coevals and H2O distillment works. The Industrial Source Complex ( ISC ) air scattering theoretical account was adopted to measure sulfur dioxide concentrations at sensitive receptors under worst instance meteoric conditions and full burden operation for both workss. A parametric sensitiveness analysis showed that receptors are exposed to concentrations transcending international criterions under most scenarios ask ing extenuation steps which were defined. Desalination engineering waste watercourses: Consequence of pH and salt on metamorphosis of marine microbic gatherings abstract Efi ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uents from desalinization engineerings may ini ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uence natural bacterial gatherings due to alterations in salt, pH, dissolved organic C concentration ( DOC ) , DOC quality and cellular hydrostatic force per unit area. Salinity, pH, and force per unit area alteration effects on heterotrophic bacterial production ( as measured by leucine incorporation ) were examined in experiments with surface H2O from the Delaware Bay, Atlantic Ocean and Pacii ¬?c Ocean. Bacterial production decreased by 57-67 % when salt of Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay surface H2O samples were increased from ambient to 60 PSU. Decreasing ambient saltwater pH from 8.0 to below 5.0 with CO2 gas reduced production by 96-100 % . Decreasing saltwater pH by 1.5units at 33 PSU caused tantamount suppression to increasing salt by 27 PSU ( pH 8.0 ) . Bacterial production in Pacii ¬?c Ocean surface H2O pressurized for 72 H was decreased 40 % by increasing salt, when measured 1h after decompression. However, production increased 43 % with increasing salt when measured 24 H after decompression. One account for these divergent effects between the 1- and 24-h sampling at ambient pH may be community version. Strains amongst the natural gathering that survived the pressurization by saturating their membrane phospholipids would probably be better adapted to vie for available foods under elevated salt. Chlorophyll and plankton of the Gulf coastal Waterss of Saudi Arabia surrounding a desalinization works Abstraction As on land, workss are the existent manufacturers in the sea, and on them depend all marine living resources and the basic sustainability of ecosystems. Primary production is performed by chlorophyll-bearing workss runing horn the bantam phytoplankton to the elephantine kelps through the procedure ofphotosynthesis. Zooplankton play an of import function as secondary manufacturers, and together with phytoplankton they support the huge gatherings of marine nutrient concatenation with all their diverseness and complexness. Data on chlorophyll pigments, phytoplankton and zooplankton are regarded as a sound footing for environmental assessment of ecosystems. This paper presents a set of informations collected Ii-om the Saudi Arabian coastal Waterss near the desalinization workss in AI-Jubail. Materials were collected from six different sites covering the consumption and discharge zones during sails carried out in 1997-1998. Analysiss of chlorophyll pigments were made utilizing the spectro photometric method. Plankton samples were collected utilizing a Nansen plankton cyberspace with a mesh size of 75 P and analyzed following criterion processs. Chlorophyll a, B, degree Celsius andphaeophytin are the most commonly happening pigments in saltwater. Their concentrations showed broad fluctuation. The phytoplankton community was composed of 35 genera stand foring the Diatoms, Dinoflagellates and blue- green algae. Zooplankton were composed ofprotozoa, Coelenterata, Ctenophora, Aschehninthes, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata and Chordata. Arthropoda, represented by Cladocera, Copepoda and Crustacean larvae, formed the largest group followed by Chordata. The distribution of phyto- and zooplankton was examined and discussed on a seasonal, one-year and inter-annual footing. In footings of species, overall species composing was non affected by works discharge. The survey brings out a greater apprehension of the alterations experienced by biotic communities as a con sequence of encroachment, entrainment and entrapment consequent to H2O transition through the works structures. The survey reflects the ecological relationships that the phytoplankton and the zooplankton of the part possess Cith regard to intake and dispatch. Further, the survey has brought to illume a really redemptive characteristic of the ecosystem to prolong its productiveness and planktonic copiousness. It was observed that saltwater temperature, conduction and entire suspended solids did non move as confining factors. Besides throwing much visible radiation on the small known biological facets of desalinization sites, the informations provided constitute a important add-on to the cognition base of Marine life resources in an industrial zone of Gulf coastal Waterss. Preliminary consequences of the monitoring of the seawater discharge produced by the SWRO desalinization works of Alicante ( SE Spain ) Abstraction Datas from monitoring of the scattering and effects of the hypersaline wastewaters originated by desalinization workss are really scarce. The aim of this paper is to show the monitoring, on clip and infinite, of the seawater discharge originated by the Alicante saltwater desalinization works ( SE Spain ) . Since the saltwater contrary osmosis ( SWRO ) desalinization works started to run in September 2003, to the day of the month, three runs were made in order to find the seasonal and spacial distribution of the seawater plume and its dilution along the country. One twelvemonth after the works operation, the consequences obtained at these runs have shown that dilution of the seawater may be lower than the normally accepted and it may impact important extensions of marine communities. Due to the recent development of the desalinization activity in our state the information obtained in this work can be considered truly utile for its application to future similar undertakings in the Medi terranean Sea.

Alternative fuel for cars – Research Proposal

This research proposal is written for proposing further research on the suitable and economically sustainable alternative fuel for cars. This study was taken as need of hour to reduce the cost towards oil imports and control pollution, which if not controlled now, will lead to worst Global Warming. Basically this proposal is based on the current and projected car population. To be sustainable and economical, the researcher has taken the study envisaging on the car market. The cars are major attributors to emission. Since car population density is directly proportional to the human population density, there will be more harm to the people.Car population and projections Number of cars in the developing world will increase 300% between 1995 and 2020. The growth in automobile population is growing at slightly less than twice the rate of the human population in North America and Western Europe. The growth of cars in developing countries is proliferating due to economic boom. There have be en no oil field discoveries since 1988 and there will be a global decline in oil production within 15 to 20 years. It is projected that by 2020 there will be well over 1. 1 billion motor vehicles (cars) in the world. Riley, R (2006).World car population. Retrieved April 7, 2008, Web site: http://www. rqriley. com/sld002. htm There were 200 million cars in 1970 and 500 million cars in 1990. During 1997 there were 600 million cars and by 2027 the projection is double the figure of 1997 data. Elert, G (2003). Number of cars. Retrieved April 7, 2008, Web site: http://hypertextbook. com/facts/2001/MarinaStasenko. shtml Current Global warming and its effect and projection CO2 had varied only about 5 percent from the last ice age (10,000 years ago) to the industrial revolution year in the last century.The CO2 level in atmosphere from the industrial revolution year to 2030 is estimated to be doubled. That means within 150 years, the CO2 level in atmosphere will be doubled. Main reason and o ne of the biggest single contributors for this change is emission from the burning of fossil fuels. We were able to control emissions by 95% in the last 20 years by the state of art emission control systems and research on fuel ingredients which resulted to lesser emissions. But looking at the projected car population the advantage gained through the emission control will be wiped off in a decade. Riley, R (2006).World car population. Retrieved April 7, 2008, Web site: http:// www. rqriley. com/moma2. htm Different alternative fuels –Merits and Demerits Ethanol –Produced from starch crops like corn and other crops like sugar beets, cane or cellulose materials, fast growing trees and grasses. It produces less green house gas emissions than conventional fuel. One third of US gasoline contains ethanol in a low level blend to reduce air pollution. The disadvantage is, it gives lesser mileage because of its lower energy content than straight petrol. Bio diesel – Prod uced from vegetable oils and animal fats.It produces less air pollution than petroleum based diesel. Production is expensive. Cost can be brought done by doing research. No need to modify the engines. Good lubricant to the engine. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)-Fossil fuel, generates less air pollutants. It is expensive. Compressed natural gas (CNG) – It produces very low level of pollution. Available refuelling station is still a problem. The storage place in the car occupies more space. Not able to go long distance because of refuelling station availability problem. Hydrogen-It can be produced from fossil fuels, nuclear power or from renewable resources like hydropower.Fuel cell vehicles powered by pure hydrogen emit no harmful air pollutants. Methanol – It is also known as wood alcohol. Methanol is produced by a process using natural gas as a feedstock. It will contaminate ground water. It gives very less mileage. Electricity-It is very silent and no pollution at all . The cost of Vehicle fitted with electric motor is in higher side, the battery charging time is too long. It takes even 8-10 hours to fully charge. The cost of running the car is very cheap. It is only good for city riding with lesser kilometre. For a long distance, it cannot be used because recharging is required for every 150 km.Hybrid cars- It uses combination of small internal combustion engine and an electric motor. It switches between IC engine and electric motors depending on the terrains and speeds. The cars with this type of arrangement are getting popular. The good example for this is Toyota Prius Ron giles (2006), Web extension to Babyboomers, Retrieved April 7, 2008 from the World Wide Web:http://www. babyboomersguide. co. nz/Articles/Alternative+Fuels. html Methodology The above said alternate fuels are under continuous research and until now no breakthrough outcomes has been implementation.The problems with the above fuels are the cost of production of fuel itself. It is costlier than petrol and diesel, the performance does not match with the existing petrol and diesel engines, engine modification cost is too high to accommodate the alternative fuel, refilling, recharging and distribution problem exists. Hence there is no practical breakthrough yet. Already all car manufacturers have invested huge money, time and effort in developing engines for performance and getting succeeded in terms of better torque, noise level, better pickup and mileage.To cope up with this, the research should be practicable and down to earth without any major investment. My proposal My proposal is for Bio Diesel. The reason for selecting for further research is, it is viable, practicable and affordable alternative fuel with no major research cost comparing with research cost of other alternative fuels. By using Bio Diesel there is no pollution problem, no modification of existing car engines for using the same. Only slight adjustments required. It lubricates the engines thus gives longer life to it. The existing distribution system of petrol pumps can be used.It performs better at par with petrol and diesel. It is very safe in transportation better than petrol and diesel because of high flash point. Bio Diesel works well with new technologies such as catalysts. The areas where the research is required is only on ensuring abundant economical availability of the inputs and reducing cost of production by looking into the process . This researcher strongly recommends research on Bio Diesel as future alternative fuel for cars to control the petrol, diesel prices and reduce emission which threatens in the form of Global Warming.References Web extension to National Biodiesel Board, Retrieved April 7, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www. biodiesel. org/ Web extension to Bio Diesel Now, Retrieved April 7, 2008 from the World Wide Web:http://www. biodieselnow. com/ Ron giles. (2006). Web extension to Babyboomers, Retrieved April 7, 2008 from the World Wide Web:http://www. babyboomersguide. co. nz/Articles/Alternative+Fuels. html Web extension to Car Stuff, Retrived April 7,2008 from the World Wide Web:http://www. car-stuff. com/carlinks/future. htm About. Inc. (2008). Web extension to About.com:cars, Retrieved April,7 2008 from world web http://cars. about. com/od/alternativetransport/ US Department of Energy. (2007, November,20), Web extension to Alternative and Advanced fuels , Retrived April 7, 2008 from the World wide web: http://www. eere. energy. gov/afdc/fuels/ Edumands Inc. (2007). Web extension to China’s car boom:Privately owned car, Retrived April 7, 2008 from World Wide Web: http://www. edmunds. com/insideline/do/News/articleId=121598 Fuel Economy (2007),Web extension to Alternative fuels, Retrieved April 7, 2008 from World Wide Web: http://www. fueleconomy.gov/Feg/current. shtml Hydrogen boost. (2007). Web extension to What is the Hydrogen-Boost Mileage Enhancement System? Retrieved April 7, 2008 from World Wi de Web: www. hydrogen-boost. com/ About. Com (2008). Web extension to Alternative fulesyou’re your car and gasoline saving, Retrived April 7,2008 from World Wide Web,http://saveenergy. about. com/od/fuelingyourautomobile/Alternative_Fuels_for_your_Car_and_Gasoline_Savings. htm About. Com (2008). Web extension to Bio Diesel, Retrived April 7,2008 from http://saveenergy. about. com/od/fuelingyourautomobile/g/biodiesel. htm

Internal Control for Outflows: Cash Disbursements and Investments Essay

Cash Disbursements  · Budgeting and Supervision The first step towards any business activity is planning and budgeting. The expenditure that is likely to be incurred for each activity or each department must be estimated and included in a budget for that activity/department. Not only the amount but also the type of expenditure that is applicable to the activity ought to be defined. Once the budget has been formulated and approved by the Board, it must be ensured that the disbursements are used only for those purposes that are defined in the budget. Any expenses outside the budget must require special approval.  · Proper Authorization The person or persons that are entitled to make authorizations for cash disbursements must be determined beforehand, clearly and unambiguously. It will be wise if one individual from the organization, generally the executive director, or the head of each department possesses this right. Other than these people, no other person should be allowed to sanction cash disbursements.  · Segregation of Duties Different persons must be responsible for different duties related to cash disbursements. For instance, there should be a different person authorizing the payments, another one signing the check and another person making the entry in the books of accounts. This will reduce chances of fraud.  · Two Signatories for Larger Checks If the check is for an amount larger than a stipulated one, it should require the signature of two persons, who operate at a higher level in the organization.  · Documentation and Accounting Bills or receipts supporting each cash disbursement must be present. The cash disbursement must be properly entered in the books of accounts by the book keeper or cash manager.  · Periodical Internal Audit An internal audit must be conducted periodically to ensure that all accounts relating to cash are accurate, in compliance with the policies and there are no other discrepancies. Investments  · Investment Policy The organization should have a proper investment policy containing details of the type and quantum of investments it would like to make during a specified period of time, generally a year. Further the policy should also provide particulars as to the financial instruments/products and financial institutions approved for investment purposes.  · Transfer of Money The money involved in the sale and/or purchase of investments must be monitored. Wire transfers should be regulated with an appropriate set of regulations and security measures. Banks should be make aware of these regulations and should be required to provide written notifications of wire transfers as well as other investment transactions.  · Segregation of Duties The persons responsible for approving investments, signing the checks, signing the receipts, supervising the process of investment and documenting the investment must all be different.  · Recording and Documentation The sanction provided, the process followed and other information in relation to the purchase and/or sale of investments should be accurately recorded and documented by the investment manager.  · Periodical Statements Reports and statements must be compiled from time to time, preferably annually containing details about the total investments of the organization, the various forms of investments, their market value, interest rates, maturity dates and other important particulars, if any.  · Periodical Internal Audit An internal audit must be conducted periodically to ensure that all accounts relating to investments are accurate, in compliance with the investment policy and there are no other discrepancies.

Curriculum Review Schedule Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Curriculum Review Schedule - Research Paper Example The schedule therefore provides a timeline as outlined in the review cycle of how the same will be implemented. The schedule thus goes a long way to ensuring that whatever was planned for is surely implemented. There are different ways through which one may develop the schedule and the interpretation is equally important. The developers of the schedule thus need to ensure that the implementers will be able to understand the schedule and follow it easily (Boarman & Kirkpatrick, 1995). To show following differences the following schedules are used The first important aspect of the schedule is the time aspect. The time provided for each phase must be; edequate to carry all the activities of the phase, fully observed as there is no extra time allowance and must tally with the allocated time in the review cycle. While carrying out the research, each phase is allocated specific period of time in the various schedules. However, that of the Naperville Community Unit School District 203, the time allowance is too general without specific time limits. This makes it hard to follow on as the time frame is not specified. A look at the Stillwater Area Public Schools schedule shows some differences in the way it is arranged. The various units that are taught within the schools are run at different stages for different course units. For example a look at the 2011-2012, there will a course such as Social Studies which will be in the first stage that is Study, Audit and Alignment while another course such as Math will already be at the implementation and monitoring stages. This shows that the curriculum review needs not to be carried out in the similar phases for all the courses. Another notable difference with the Stillwater Area Public Schools schedule that is different from the other two is on the determination of the various activities that need to be carried out in each stage. While the activities may be outline in the cycle well, the outlay of the various

Living Together Before Marriage as a Controversial Topic Research Paper - 7

Living Together Before Marriage as a Controversial Topic - Research Paper Example The people who strongly oppose couples living together prior to marriage stress the significance of adhering to traditional beliefs in the sacrament of marriage. The previous generation has always supported the need for marriage before their children could live with a person not yet considered one’s spouse. The belief marriage is more than a mutual agreement, but more so, a sacrament blessed by Divine Power is prevalent in major religions. Those couples who decide to get married have their unions blessed and are therefore believed to endure challenges and trials ‘until death do them part’. On the contrary, supporters of those who believe that living together is an agreement that is more beneficial indicate that disagreement from various sectors is not fully justified. Although the majority of people believe that living together is, in fact, going against the norm by asserting that â€Å"cohabitors are partially rejecting society's dominant value system. Those peo ple who enter cohabitation relationships tend to perceive social rules in flexible terms† (Cohabitation, par. 11). A glimpse on the research on contemporary generation has proven that â€Å"young couples are most accepting of cohabitation, and it is likely that it will become increasingly popular over time† (Barlow, Duncan, James, and Park, 1). In this regard, there are lesser social pressures or stigma associated with couples who opt to live together prior to marriage. Living together before marriage gives more benefits as long as the couples are physical, emotionally, economically mature to acknowledge the responsibilities and accountabilities that go with the agreement.

Adam Smith Wealth of Nations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Adam Smith Wealth of Nations - Essay Example Smith is actually considered to be the Father of Modern Economics.Adam Smith's ideas as reflected in his work are still relevant today. His concept of free-trade is still what majority of the world's economy is practicing. Free trade, according to Smith, is the ability of the economy to produce the sufficient amount of goods and provide different varieties with the guidance of what he calls "the invisible hand." If there is a shortage of a certain product, price tends to increase which, in turn, gives higher profit to the producers. This entices more producers to enter the market which leads to the increase in supply of the product and more competition among the producers. Given this condition, price naturally gets lower. Once the price gets too low that the producers would incur losses than profits, they will be out of business. Although this competition can be due to human's pursuit of self-interest, this benefits the society as a whole by keeping the prices of goods at a low level and, at the same time, having a variety of products and services.This idea is what happens in our modern economic society. Businesses get into the market because they can see a potential profitable market. And what prevents these businesses to monopolize in their field is the fact that there will be other businesses or individuals who would want to get into the same market and have a fair competition.

Development and environment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Development and environment - Research Paper Example Development and environment are related. The world is developing rapidly. More buildings and industries are coming up. Modern technologies are also being developed each passing day. All these have an effect on the environment. Lack of proper planning during development ventures can lead to environmental degradation. Disasters have been a major setback to development. Disasters are natural and cannot be prevented but their effects can be reduced through disaster risk reduction approach in coming up with development policies. If this is done, more vulnerable people will be empowered to develop and more resources will be availed for development projects rather than providing relief during disasters. This paper deals with two issues, first is the impact of development on environment and second is the importance of disaster risk reduction in developmental policies. Impact of development on environment Deforestation Development has greatly resulted in reduction of forest cover. As more res idential and industrial buildings are developed forests are cut so as to give room for these buildings. Technological development has also led to invention of tools that can bring down forests very fast. One such example is the power saw that can easily be used to cut trees. Warfare has also been the cause of deforestation. There have been developments of weapons of mass destruction such as bombs. Chemicals also used during war time can greatly reduce the forest cover. These chemicals can impair the physiological functioning of trees leading to their drying. When these technologies are harnessed in warfare they can lead to massive reduction of forest cover. It is approximated that in Vietnam, bombing caused a destruction of about 22,000 square kilometres of forests (Mai and Nguyen 2). The investment in shrimp aquaculture has also led to destruction of mangrove forests in several countries. Over the years, forest cover has inversely been related to development. As more buildings and more advanced technologies are invented, the forest cover has come under great threat. Water Pollution Development has led to many industries that discharge their effluents into rivers, canals, rice fields and lakes. These untreated effluents from industrial and municipal discharges have caused degradation of water sources. The discharge of organic and nutrient wastes into the rivers has led to an increase of (biological oxygen demand) BOD in rivers. This is because these wastes are decomposable and require oxygen during disintegration. Lack of sufficient oxygen would lead to anaerobic decomposition accompanied by foul smells. Waste water also contains chemicals such as PCBs and Organochlorine pesticides. Agriculture and flood control activities have also led to water pollution. With technological development, almost all farming is done using fertilizers. These fertilizers are washed away into rivers, lakes, and ocean. The fertilizers contain chemicals that if they accumulate into w ater bodies, they are harmful to human, animal, and aquatic life. The advance in flood mitigation methods has also led to accumulation of arsenic in ground water in India and Bangladesh. Chemical pollution Failure to properly use pesticides, chemicals for agricultural, industrial, and fighting diseases has led to chemical pollution across the globe. These chemicals may contain organic compounds that are persistent such as PCBs, DDT, furans, hexachlorobenzene and dioxins. Polychlorinated biphenyls are used in some capacitors and transformers, paint additives, hydraulic and heat transfer fluids and lubrication oil. A portion of the contaminated oil may be released into the environment resulting into pollution. DDT was extensively used to combat malaria before its ban in 1992. This chemical was sprayed in homesteads in order to eradicate mosquitoes. The technology was very efficient in eradicating mosquitoes but it had long term side effect. DDT is a persistent chemical and when

Expanding a U.S. based business (Shopko) into Scotland Essay

Expanding a U.S. based business (Shopko) into Scotland - Essay Example Edinburg is the capital town where the majority lives above middle class status. Geographically, the country is in the northern part of Great Britain, bordered on the Southern part by England. Most people live in the Central Lowland, which contain the three cities, Stirling, Glasgow, and Edinburgh and other large towns. Most of the other population lives in the north-eastern Lowlands in Dundee and Aberdeen. Inverness is the other populated city where majority lives and work there. The country has diverse climates ranging from temperate to tropical. However, the daytime maximum temperature in January and February is around 5 to 7 Â °C, but on rare occasions the temperature may increase to 15Â °C. Temperatures are cooler in Scotland than in Scotland. However, the country is cloudier than England because of its landscape from the Atlantic. Rainfall varies widely from 3, 000 mm per year to 800 mm in the Western Highlands and the East Cost respectively. English is the official language spoken, but some people speak different Scots dialects. The country has a strong culture that greatly influences the tourism industry. Scots are friendly, easy-going, and loving. Thus, there is no discrimination or cultural influence in the way business are conducted. The country’s economic development is largest based on the oil that remains an important element. Fishing and agriculture has also played a significant role in the country’s development. Compared to other countries, most people are living in the middle class income (Wilson, Murphy, & Lonely Planet Publications (Firm), 2008). Shopko Shopko is a company that has been growing tremendously for the past years. The reason for choosing this industry is because I work there and I have seen how the industry is important to international business. Shopko distributes various products such as clothing, jewellery, house wares, along with beauty and health products. The company has a superb reputation of referring to i ts employees from retail floor to the CEO as teammates. The company has established the need to break down barriers that hinder people to work as a team. To establish a strong teamwork, the company felt the need of referring to its employees as teammates regardless of their position. The management team works hard to collect informal feedbacks and customer surveys. The obtained feedbacks help the company to grow from one level of maturity to another. For instance, it helps in converting the first time clients to potential and frequent clients. For the past years, most clients have constantly affirmed that one of the main reasons they shop there regularly is because of the company’s ideal of friendliness and genuine teamwork. The management team and employee strive to make shopping at Shopko a more personal experience and friendly place. Specifically, feedbacks from teammates and comments posted on the social network sited confirm that Shopko is the ideal place to shop. Manage rial Implications To flourish in the tough economic times, the company should create brand ambassadors. The company should create a platform where employees are committed to the mission and understand the strategy of staying ahead of other competitors in the industry. Communication should be been the main ingredient that augments teamwork. The company shou

Saudi Arabia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Saudi Arabia - Essay Example The most difficult duty that the King has to perform is to maintain a balanced and harmonious relationship among the Royal Family members, the upper-class people of the society and the Ulama, an Islamic religious community (Lacey 39). The difficulty mainly arises from the conflict of interests between the religious community and the other bourgeois class people, as in this regard, Matthes et al says that the king’s decision-making often involves maintaining balance and mitigating â€Å"conflict between religious and power interests† (3). Due to the tribal pattern of the Saudi Arabian society, the King often needs to interfere into tribal agreements, and at the same time, to renew the government’s agreements with the Arabian tribes. It is mutually agreed that, unlike a democratic political system the Saudi Royal Family is endowed with the power to dethrone the King. Overview of Saudi Arabian Government From the very beginning of the establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, the country is being ruled under monarchy, as Gerald Butt, a middle East Analyst, says, â€Å"The history of Saudi Arabia is entwined - as much as its name is - with the fate and fortunes of the House of Saud, which traces its origins back to the 18th Century† (2). ... t, Matthes et al says, â€Å"Occupying nearly all the important state positions, the large Al Saud family dominates Saudi-Arabian politics as well as parts of the economy making the desert kingdom a â€Å"family firm†(4). The country’s high authoritative decisions come from a cabinet of 15 members. Since the cabinet primarily consists of members who are close in kinship to the King, it becomes often difficult to take a decision by fulfilling all of the members’ interests. The decisions are often deterred and protracted. Constitution of Saudi Arabia: Interests of Royal Family, Islam, and the Leading Technocrat in it Since Saudi Arabia’s constitution consists of the Koran, Allah’s laws and Sunnah, the explanation of the Koran, the country does not have any constitution in traditional sense, rather it has some 83 operational laws on which the kingdom is expected to be operated. Since the state is responsible for the enforcement of Islamic law or Shari ah, the Saudi constitution does not consider the existence of religious organizations. Also Article 5 declares the political system of the country as monarchy and also it does not permit any political organizations in the country. According to article 5c, the King can choose his heir. Though the King is considered to be endowed with unfettered power, he is expected to respect Islamic Laws and Values. According to Article 44, three types of authorities are considered to function as parts of the state, while the King preserves the supreme power to interfere into any of these authoritative powers. According to the Saudi Constitution, the monarchy is considered as the key source of power with the right to interfere into any level of the government. The Council of Ministers and its Functions during the Years Prior to 1990

Commonwealth of Nations Essay Example for Free

Commonwealth of Nations Essay Inside Jewish Synagogue The Paradesi Synagogue is the oldest active[1] synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations,[2] located in Kochi, Kerala, in South India. It was built in 1568 by the Malabar Yehudan people or Cochin Jewish community in the Kingdom of Cochin. Paradesi is a word used in several Indian languages, and the literal meaning of the term is foreigners, applied to the synagogue because it was historically used by White Jews, a mixture of Jews from Cranganore, the Middle East, and European exiles. It is also referred to as the Cochin Jewish Synagogue or the Mattancherry Synagogue. The synagogue is located in the quarter of Old Cochin known as Jew Town,[2] and is the only one of the seven synagogues in the area still in use. The complex has fourbuildings. It was built adjacent to the Mattancherry Palace temple on the land gifted to the Malabari Yehuden community by the Raja of Kochi, Rama Varma[disambiguation needed]. The Mattancherry Palace temple and the Mattancherry synagogue share a common wall. History The Malabari Jews formed a prosperous trading community of Kerala, and they controlled a major portion of world wide spice trade. In 1568, the Jews of Kerala constructed the Paradesi Synagogue adjacent to Mattancherry Palace, Cochin, now part of the Indian city of Ernakulam, on land given to them by the Raja of Kochi. The original synagogue was built in the 4th  century in Kodungallur (Cranganore) when the Jews had a mercantile role in the South Indian region along the Malabar coast now called Kerala. It was later moved to Kochi from Kodungallur. The first synagogue of the Malabari Jews in Cochin was destroyed in the Portuguese persecution of the Malabari Jews and Nasrani people of Kerala in the 16th century. The second synagogue, built under the protection of the Raja of Cochin along with Dutch patronage, is the present synagogue. It is called Paradesi synagogue because it was built with Dutch patronage at a time when Kochi was under Dutch occupation, thus the name paradesi synagogue or foreign synagogue. In 1968, the synagogue celebrated its 400th anniversary in a ceremony attended by Indira Gandhi, the Indian Prime Minister. Social composition and traditions The Paradesi Synagogue had three classes of members. * White Jews were full members. The White Jews, or Paradesi Jews, were the recent descendants of Sephardim from Holland and Spain. * Black Jews were allowed to worship but were not admitted to full membership. These Cochin Jews were the original Jewish settlers of Cochin. * Meshuchrarim, a group of freed slaves who had no communal rights and no synagogue of their own sat on the floor or on the steps outside. However, in the first half of the 20th century,Abraham Barak Salem, a meshuchrar, successfully campaigned against this discrimination. As is normal for Orthodox Jewish synagogues, the Paradesi Synagogue has separate seating sections for men and women. The Paradesi Synagogue is the only functioning synagogue in Kochi today with a minyan (though this minyan must be formed with Jews from outside Kochi, as the number who still reside there is not sufficient). In conformity with the Hindu, Nasrani and Islamic traditions of Kerala, the worshippers are required to enter the Paradesi Synagogue barefoot.[3] Other facets which are unique to the Cochin Jewish community, and which are results of Hindu influence, include special colors of clothing for each festival, circumcision ceremonies at public worship, and distribution of grapes soaked myrtle leaves on certain festivals. In addition, the Cochin Jews currently have no rabbis, as the community is led by elders. The synagogue is also open to visitors; the ticket-seller, Yaheh Hallegua, is the last female Paradesi Jew of child-bearing age. Objects of antiquity The Paradesi Synagogue has the Scrolls of the Law, several gold crowns received as gifts, many Belgian glass chandeliers, and a brass-railed pulpit. It houses the copper plates of privileges given to Joseph Rabban, the earliest known Cochin Jew, dating from the 10th century, written in Tamil on the two plates, by the ruler of the Malabar Coast. The floor of the synagogue is composed of hundreds of Chinese, 18th century, hand-painted porcelain tiles, all of which are unique. There is also an oriental rug, a gift from Haile Selassie, the last Ethiopian Emperor.[5] The most visible part of the synagogue is the 18th century clock tower, which, along with other parts of the complex,which underwent repair work under the direction of World Monuments Fund, between 1998 and 1999.[6] Hebrew inscription at the Mattancherry synagogue A tablet from the earlier synagogue in Kochangadi in Kochi (built in 1344) is placed on the outer wall of the Paradesi synagogue. The inscription states that the structure was built in 5105 (in the Hebrew Calendar) as an abode for the spirit of God Description The temple was built in first millennium during the time of Kamarupa. Allahabad rock inscriptions of Samudragupta mentioned about it. Temple was destroyed during the middle of second millennium and revised temple structure was constructed in 1565 by Chilarai of the Koch dynastyin the style of medieval temples.[2] The current structure has a beehive-like shikhara with delightful sculptured panels and images of Ganeshaand other Hindu gods and goddesses on the outside .[3] The temple consists of three major chambers. The western chamber is large and  rectangular and is not used by the general pilgrims for worship. The middle chamber is a square, with a small idol of the Goddess, a later addition. The walls of this chamber contain sculpted images of Naranarayana, related inscriptions and other gods.[4] The middle chamber leads to the sanctum sanctorum of the temple in the form of a cave, which consists of no image but a natural underground spring that flows through a yoni-shaped cleft in the bedrock. During the Ambuvaci festival each summer,the menstruation of the Goddess Kamakhya is celebrated. During this time, the water in the main shrine runs red with iron oxide resembling menstrual fluid. It is likely that this is an ancient Khasi sacrificial site, and worshiping here still includes sacrifices. Devotees come every morning with goats to offer to Shakti.[5] The Kalika Purana, an ancient work in Sanskrit describes Kamakhya as the yielder of all desires, the young bride of Shiva, and the giver of salvation.Shakti is known as Kamakhya. Kamakhya Temple in Himachal Pradesh. The Kamakhya temple in the forest region of Polian Purohitan in Una District of Himachal State is situated at about 600 mt above sea level. The Pindi,was brought over by the Rajpurohits of Brahaminical Aryan descent of the sage Vatsayan some 800 years ago after the invasion of the Shans in 1200C, with the destruction of the first tantric ritual site. The worshippers escaped in mass migration from the Garo-Khasi hillregion of Assam, via the Tibet Himalaya silk route to Kashmir .While some left for the north west frontiers, a few families of the Brahamin Vatsayan Rajpurohits sanctified the tantric Kamakhyakuldevi in the wilderness of an isolated forest hill in Polian Purohitan. Sculptures carved on the temple The first tantric Kamakhya Temple was destroyed during the Mongol invasion in the Nilachal hills in the 12 BC, so was the fate of the second tantric temple destroyed in the Muslim attacks, probably by the Hindu convert Muslim  warrior Kala Pahad. The Brahaminical legend of the Shakti in the later period led to the worship of the tantric goddess as Hindu Shakti goddess. The worship of all female deity in Assam symbolizes the fusion of faiths and practices of Aryan and non-Aryan elements in Assam.[6] The different names associated with the goddess are names of local Aryan and non-Aryan goddesses.[7] The Yogini Tantra mentions that the religion of the Yogini Pitha is ofKirata origin.[8] According to Banikanta Kakati, there existed a tradition among the priests established by Naranarayana that the Garos, a matrilineal people, offered worship at the earlier Kamakhya site by sacrificing pigs.[9] The goddess is worshiped according to both the Vamachara (Left-Hand Path) as well as theDakshinachara (Right-Hand Path) modes of worship.[10] Offerings to the goddess are usually flowers, but might include animal sacrifices. In general female animals are exempt from sacrifice, a rule that is relaxed during mass sacrifices.[11] Legends A complete view of the temple Vatsayana,a Vedic Sage in Varanasi during the later first Century was approached by the King in the Himalayan region (now Nepal) to find a solution to convert the tribals and their rituals of human sacrifice to a more socially accepted worship. The Sage suggested the worship of a tantric goddess Tara that spread towards the eastern Himalayan belt till the Garo Hills where the tribals worshipped a fertility yoni goddess Kameke. It was much later in the later Brahaminical period Kalika Purana that most tantric goddess were related to the legend of Shakti and began to be erroneously worshipped as a devi by the Hindus. According to the Kalika Purana, Kamakhya Temple denotes the spot where Sati used to retire in secret to satisfy her amour with Shiva, and it was also the place where her yoni fell after Shiva danced with the corpse of Sati.[12] This is not corroborated in the Devi Bhagavata, which lists 108 places associated with Satis body, though Kamakhya finds a mention in a supplementary list.[13] The Yogini Tantra, a latter work, ignores the origin of Kamakhya given inKalika Purana and associates Kamakhya with the goddess Kali and  emphasizes the creative symbolism of the yoni. Kamakhya during Ahom era According to a legend the Koch Bihar royal family was banned by Devi herself from offering puja at the temple. In fear of this curse, to this day no descendants of that family dares to even look upward towards the Kamakhya hill while passing by. Without the support of the Koch royal family the temple faced lot of hardship. By the end of 1658, the Ahoms under king Jayadhvaj Singha had conquered the Lower Assam and their interests in the temple grew. In the decades that followed the Ahom kings, all who were either devout Shaivite or Shaktacontinued to support the temple by rebuilding and renovating it. Rudra Singha (reign 1696 to 1714) was a devout Hindu and as he grew older he decided to formally embrace the religion and become an orthodox Hindu by being initiated or taking sharan of a Guru, who would teach him the mantras and become his spiritual guide. But, he could not bear the thought of humbling himself in front a Brahmin who is his subject. He therefore sent envoys to Bengal and summoned Krishnaram Bhattacharyya, a famous mahant of Shaktasect who lived in Malipota, near Santipur in Nadia district. The mahant was unwilling to come, but consented on being promised to be given the care of the Kamakhya temple to him. Though the king did not take sharan, he satisfied the mahant by ordering his sons and the Brahmins in his entourage to accept him as their spiritual guru. When Rudra Singha died, his eldest son Siba Singha (reign 1714 to 1744), who became the king, gave the management of the Kamakhya temple and along with it large areas of land (Debottar land) to Mahant Krishnaram Bhattacharyya. The Mahant and his successors came to be known as Parbatiya Gosains, as they resided on top of the Nilachal hill. Many Kamakhya priests and modern Saktas of Assam are either disciples or descendants of the Parbatiya Gosains, or of the Nati and Na Gosains.

Islamic And Conventional Worldview

Islamic And Conventional Worldview Worldview refers to a general conception of the nature of the world , particularly as containing or implying a system of value-principles. Any total philosophical system may be so styled which derives practical consequences from its theoretical componentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦... According to that definition, such a system of value-principles may be inspired by religious tenets or by moral philosophy independent of religion. And also, the distinctive spiritual and material aspect of the society and individual lives in often end to mold their worldview. Therefore, in making a choice, someone is imperative to look at the worldview dynamics from the different social systems rest on. Individual in a society can still have their own principles or variations, but hopefully their average behavior would tend to conform to the norms of what has socially been agreed upon. Worldview is considered as evolutionary and architectonic rather than contextual. Social phenomena are dynamic and because of the interaction between the changing realities of life and the social worldview perception, the latter invariably has a temporal dimension. Thus, worldview remains in a process of change and reconstruction over time around some unalterable elements. Therefore, because of worldview is coming from human being, it then starts to think about religious worldview, such as Islamic worldview. Since factors affecting worldview differ, different worldview exits, leading to different system for different people. Secular and materialist worldview attach minimum importance to the material aspect of human well being and tend to ignore the importance of the spiritual aspect. They often argue that maximum material well-being can be best solution if the individuals are given unhindered freedom to pursue their self interest and to maximize their want satisfaction in keeping with their own tastes and preferences. In their extreme form they do not recognize any role for divine guidance in human life and place full trust in the ability of human beings to chalk out the proper with the help of their reason. That understanding of religion actually is not necessarily accepted nor applicable to all societies and civilization. The Christian civilization has experience and history which is inclined to secularize as follows : à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â €š ¬Ã‚ ¦ this dichotomy between the religious and the remainder of human life is a western product and concernà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. This distinction between the sacred and profane, between religion and other aspects of human endeavor is a result of the process of secularization that has been the experiences of Christian/Western civilization especially since the 17th century (Encyclopedia of Religion 12, 1987). Thus, in such worldview, there is little role for values or government intervention in the efficient and equitable allocation and distribution of resources. When we identify whether social interest is served, the answer is that, government has given to everyone to pursue his/her interest, and they argue that social interest will automatically serve. There is no doubt that under its secular and materialist worldview, the market system led to a long period of prosperity, however, this unprecedented prosperity did not lead to the elimination of poverty or the fulfillment of everyones needs in conformity with the Judeo-Christian value system even in the wealthiest countries. Even, Marx which is proponent of socialist ideology, came up with the notion, the methodological struggle for economists was to alienate political economy from ethics. It is with Marx that the methodological problem in political economy became the demarcation of economic science from the ideology. So, the question later on, is there a place for morality in economics? Leading thinkers on methodological issues have adopted definitions of economics that put the subject in a wider perspective, and ultimately raise moral and religious issues. Pareto pointed out that political economy did not have to take morality into account, but an economist who extolled a particular practical measure should consider the moral as well as the economic consequences. Real men included not only homo oeconomicus, but also homo ethicus and homo religious. However, the economists who, in commending in law, consider only the economic effect was, in Paretos view, not much of a theories. When science become advance, then not only are the different parts of a phenomenon separated, but they are subsequently put together in a synthesis. Hence, the economic, ethical, and religious consequences have all to be taken into account. Nobel-laureate Amartya Sen has, therefore, rightly argued that the distancing of economics from ethics has impoverished welfare economics and also weakened the basis of a good deal of descriptive and predictive economics and that economics can be made more productive by paying greater and more explicit attention to ethical consideration that shaped human behavior and judgment. Hausman and McPherson also conclude in their survey article Economics and Contemporary Moral Philosophy that An economy that is engaged actively and self-critically with the moral aspects of its subject matter cannot help but more interesting and more illuminating and, ultimately, more useful than one that tries not to be . In contrast with this, religious worldview give attention to both the material as well as the spiritual aspect of human well-being. Islam also support to that statement. In Islam, the dichotomy and separation from other aspects of life are considered as contradictory, incoherent, and meaningless. Since religion of Islam is not human creation of, and for infantile man but it is a representative of a way of life for all times. Islam has come up with the concept of din, which is perfectly being taught ,including the Islamic worldview. As mentioned by Watt (1979, 3-4), the term din refer more to a :à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..whole way of lifeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦covers both the private and public/societal lives of man, it permeates the whole fabric of society, and included theological dogma, forms of worship, political theory, and a detailed code of conduct, including even matters which the European would classify as hygiene or etiquetteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. In addition, an Islamic worldview gives the meaning and purpose in our act ions. It also dealing with why and how we exist, and it means that actually what ethical or moral values we should partake in, later on what type of behavior or actions we should consider as right or wrong. This is closely related with the concept of din in Islam. Since din is meant the place which man tested and asked by God to follow the straight path of the din. Therefore, all knowledge, notably economics discipline, is basically corrigible except the knowledge revealed by God. Furthermore, under the Islamic worldview, God has created the universe for the benefit of all creatures; with man made as His vicegerent. He has made the resources of the universe available to man who has the responsibility to make the best use of these resources without spreading corruption. ISLAMIC WORLDVIEW AND MAQASID AS SYARIAH The Islamic worldview also has well spell out objectives known as maqasid al-syariah. These are meant to promote the welfare of the entire mankind, and enjoin on believers the safeguarding of their faith, their human self, their intellectual, their posterity, and their wealth. Furthermore, in dealings with this, Islam has encouraged co-operation to achieve Maslahah (benefit in every day communal life. The other parts of maqasid is establishing justice which is indeed a manifestation of gods mercy, but may also be seen as a principal objective of the shariah in its own right. Justice as a value or primary objective of the shariah which is everyone in Islam must establish an equilibrium between rights and obligations. The other purposes of maqasid is to educating the individual. In fact, in order to priority, it may even though to be placed before maslahah and adl. Essentially, community oriented values that acquire much of their meaning in the context of social relations, whereas the former seeks to make each individual a trustworthy agent just so as to strive to realize these values which benefit himself and the community. Indeed, the overall purpose of a great number of the stipulation of the shariah, especially in the spheres of Ibadah and akhlaq, is to train the individual to acquire the virtues of taqwa, and thus, to aid the fulfillment of the objective. ISLAMIC WORLDVIEW AND ISLAMIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE Islamic worldview is one of paradigm which are Muslim must be having. Islamic worldview is considered as purpose in our actions, since it gives the answers to questions dealing with why and how we exist. Therefore, Islamic worldview is able to direct on what type of behavior or actions we should consider right or wrong. As worldview also is defined as how one sees the world. Hence, value is attached to knowledge that one receives, because the information is processed by the knowledge-giver first before it passed down to the recipient. This knowledge, together with the value attached to it, is then assimilated into ones mental framework and worldview. Accordingly, due to the impact of worldviews and the values attached to knowledge that would impact ones perspective on life. Having viewed the important of knowledge, the Islamic scholars, such as Al Attas and Ismail Al-Faruqi come up with the notion, called to Islamization of Knowledge (IOK). Hence, IOK is a term which describes a vari ety of attempts and approaches to synthesize the ethics of Islam. Al- Attas adds up that the fundamental crisis of the modern-day ummah to be epistemological in nature-that is having its roots in the very conception of knowledge. This brought about the contents of their education by willing to take bold measure and introduce curriculum reform in particularly Islamic economics programme. Also, the further challenge in terms of knowledge, is that, the curriculum must has the ability to shed light the different between what is considered as knowledge and not. Al-Attas adds up to identify the confusion of knowledge must be eliminated et all since it can exhaust the moral values of Ummah and lead to a loss of adab and subsequently the rise of false leaders that would exacerbate the confusion of knowledge. Having realized of what important the IOK agenda is, we have to deal with the concept of existing modern knowledge which have been embodied in current system and how to develop IOK. In terms of the modern knowledge, Al-Attas had given his conception, is that, every Muslims have to call for the recognition of the proper authorities of knowledge. This means that since the modern knowledge or the west knowledge is at the forefront of science and technology and hence, Muslims are urge d to learn from them. However, the Muslim should possess the metaphysical (Islamic) worldview necessary to filter out theories, that are not in line with the aqidah and tasawwuf. He also noted that Muslim, in pursuit the knowledge, does not just stop at the reinterpretation of secular knowledge, but also should also possess the ability to form and establish new theories and solutions that support the Islamic worldview. And finally, the Muslim should be aware the supreme goal for knowledge is that the spiritual and immaterial in nature. Subsequently, to conduct IOK agenda need to further discussions and interpretations. The spirit of how to perform IOK agenda is that, the notion to integrate the two education stream, the heritage and modern knowledge. Later on, in this context, Al-Alwani (1989, p.89) states that the IOK agenda require the combination of two readings. Therefore, the IOK agenda requires six discourses, namely articulating the Islamic paradigm of knowledge and developing a Quranic Methodology, establishing a methodology which is dealing with the Quran and Sunnah, reexamining the Islamic intellectual heritage, dealing with the western intellectual heritage. Beside Al-Alwani, Ragab (1995, 1997, and 1999) was propounded the idea of creative engagement which ultimately was proposing a unified integral theoretical framework. He also signifies that the Islamizers should be qualified which are able to understand and mastery the substantive knowledge in the modern sciences , and has to involve in an understanding of the Islamic Worldview, and capable of propounding a critical evaluation and modification of modern social sciences from an Islamic viewpoint. Wan Mohd. Nor, 1998, also attempts to note that IOK can be done by those who have a profound grasp of the nature, spirit, and attributes of Islam as religion, culture, and civilization as well as western culture and civilization. Unless the Islamizers clearly understand the Islamic worldview, they may not know what need to be isolated and what need to be infused, what are acceptable, what are not and what the Islamic alternatives are. Since, according to Al-Attas, IOK is an epistemological and methodological concern, dealing with how Islamically creative minds can evaluate modern knowledge using Islamic benchmarks. Thus, at the end of the process, Islamizers fervently wish to come up with idea of reconstruction or reformulation of contemporary knowledge and disciplines, either those existing or the creation of new disciplines if necessary. CONCLUSION Islamic worldview is considered and defined as general conception of the nature of the world in Islamic perspective. It contains a system of values principles, which based on dien of Islam. Islamic worldview would give meanings and purpose of all actions done by human beings, particularly Muslims. Muslims will be guided and directed to the area of inline with aqidah, tasawuff, and syariah principles and values. Ethical or moral values is viewed to be a central and basic every endeavor in performing activities, which are categorized as ibadah or muamalah. Subsequently, one attempts to apply and synthesize the ethic of Islam with modern thought is by introducing Islamization of Knowledge (IOK). IOK seems to be essential to be established is shedding out and considered as positive ways to mitigate the problem of corruption of knowledge which is believed has brought up the backwardness of Muslims ummah. In its implementation, IOK agenda is trying to integrate between the heritage of Isla m with modern knowledge by undertaking a certain methodology. Certainly, integrating of two types of knowledge need a qualified Islamizer which require to understand the Islamic worldview comprehensively and perfectly. The future of Conventional Accounting The traditional Western double-entry based accounting technology is well-suited to an orthodox, positivist society of any kind. It is not surprising that it is proving inadequate, as people are returning to more integrated world views, whether Islamic or otherwise (Hayashi, 1989) Critics on Conventional Accounting Externalities is not included in financial report (Lee Parker, environmental accounting) Intangible asset cannot be measured adequately(Lev Baruch) Human resources and employee reporting interest are not included. Social Interest is overlooked Promote the exploitation of capitalist over labor and society. Promote the concentration of wealth and power o the hand of the rich. What is Islam? Peace (in this world and hereafter) obedience to Allah as his/her God, comply with the motivation of Gods creation of Man, which is to serve Allah, to be his viceregent on earth. A comprehensive worldview, a unity of God, and an integration between world and hereafter. Islamic principles: truth, justice, fair, goodwill, honesty, benevolent, accountability before the God. Islams epistemology of Devine Unity: The Islamic world view is thereby, the comprehensive and universalizing, overreaching and complementing design of reality that is premise on the epistemology of divine unity and is evolved into intellection through the process orientation model of unification of knowledge in world system as derived from the primal sources of divine unity. Islamic Rules: Allah (God) gives two guidance for mankind: al-Quran (revealed world of God ) and Hadist/Sunnah: Prophet Saying, Gods inspired acts, description of the conduct of the prophets companion of which Mohammad was uncritical. Ijtihad/ijma: shuratic and consensus process. Guidance are related to all daily life of mankind including in business, management, and finance. The phenomena of nature can be also a sign of Gods power and existence. The purpose of shariah (Islamic law) To promote the welfare of the people which lies on: Safeguarding of their faith Their life Their intellect Their posterity and Their Wealth Quranic verse on Accounting i.e. Albaqarah (2) ayah 282: Oh you who believe! When you deal with each other, in transaction involving future obligations in a fixed period of time, reduce them in writing. Let a scribe write down faithfully as between parties. There is an integration between worship ritual and socio-economy-politico and daily life of mankind. Allah rules out business and accounting. Islamic accounting: Hayashi is an integrated discipline with social, political and economic domain ruled by Allah or meta rule. Islamic accounting should regulate and establish a harmonious integration among the parties of these diverse domain. Ancient Accounting Role in Islamic State is Muhasabah, it means: Calculation of ones act Clear the account, make neutral To take care of, to try to find To anticipate a reward in the hereafter To take into account, into consideration To order Muslim to perform their duties To avoid fraudulent practices in business and society, to check illegal contract, keep free market and fair price, prevent necessities from being hoarded. (Hayashi, 1989) Islamic Accounting 1. To report accurate income determination 2. To promote efficiency and leadership 3. To comply with the shariah (Islamic principles) 4. Commitment to justice 5. To report a good things 6. To adapt to positive social change. Conventional vs Islamic Accounting: Conventional Accounting: Based upon modern commercial law-permissive rather than ethical Limited disclosure (provision of information subject to public interest) Personal accountability (focus on individuals who control resources) Economic rationalism Secular Individualistic Profit maximization Survival of fittest Process Absolute ownership (Ec. rationalism: the desire to stand apart from others, to compete, to manipulate and to amass surplus) Individuality oriented Focus on individuality aspect without consider any social aspects Accounting Law and Ethics Secular The normative accounting always influencing descriptive accounting or individuality interest In operational, they permit everything to reach the highest profit Measure as highest possible profit Historical Cost Firm doses not have separate financial obligation (I.e profit sharing scheme) Depend on contractual agreement between party One lunar year for zakat calculation Quantity based and monetary based (zakat calculation) Importance for fulfillment of duties and obligation to God, society and individual. Clear conscience with God in fulfilling all duties. Consistence to shariah rules Most favorable to society (justice) Islamic Accounting Based upon ethical law originating in the Quran (Islamic law, As-Sunnah) Full disclosure (to satisfy any reasonable demand for information in accordance with the Sharia) Public accountability (focus on the community who participate in exploiting resources) Unity of God Religious Communal Reasonable profit Equity Environment Relative ownership Focus on society aspect Basically Al Quran As Sunnah (Shariah) Religious (must responsibility to God at the Judgment Day) No differentiation between Normative and Descriptive Accounting (They always going simultaneously) In operational, they do everything in boundaries of Islam (Shariah) Measure as saleable value Market (selling) price rather than historical cost [Entity]Separation between business and owners [going concern] Business continues forever [Accounting period] Periodical measurement of performance [unit of measure] Monetary Value [Full disclosure principle] Decision making process [objectivity] Reliability of measurement [Materiality] Relative importance of information for decision making [Consistency] Consistency based on GAAP [Conservatism] Use least favorable impact on owners

Social work as a practice

Social work as a practice Social work as a practice is of recent origin and attempts to meet the needs of people especially those in urban areas. In essence, it is a professional activity of helping individuals or communities enhance or restore their capacities to a social functioning and to create societal conditions favorable to their goals. It aims to improve the quality of human life as well as show commitment towards social justice (Ryan and Hughes, 1998). Individuals, families, communities and organizations are able to attain their full potential by seeking social work related services. The need for such services has been extended to cater for children as they are currently facing challenges that hinder their proper development. This has become the main focal point of this document. First of all, as mentioned above, social work is aimed at improving the livelihoods of people and engaging them constructively to attain their full potential. This cuts across all generations including children. Several reasons have contributed to my desire in working within the Public Child Welfare system. The system is driven by the aim to promote the safety, wellbeing and permanency of children as well as families (Ryan and Hughes, 2006). Most children experience situations such as being deprived of parental care, abuse ranging from physical, sexual, emotional to neglect, marital conflicts, stigma related issues, unfavorable socioeconomic conditions (Weaver et al., 2006) that expose them to scenarios such as opting for prostitution. Qualities Of A Good Child Protection Services Worker For one to be a Child Protection Services worker, one has to meet the basic requirements which include a Bachelors degree in social work or a Masters degree in social work, maintain substantial knowledge of current affairs pertaining to childrens welfare and be able to apply the knowledge acquired into structured settings. One should be aware of the ethics and values which describe in detail the code of conduct. A commitment to the ethics and values of a Child Protection Services worker should be fully adhered to, be able to apply basic helping skills where one is able to respond to individual, group and community needs, engagement skills, observation skills, communication skills, empathy skills, resistance intervention and assessment skills. With these strengths I am able to carry out my duties as Child Welfare Protection Officer effectively and efficiently. Challenges To Effective Child Welfare Service Provision However, even with the above strengths, several challenges exist that compromise service delivery on the part of the child welfare services worker. Ryan and Hughes (1998) expound on these challenges to include; poor public perception of the Child Welfare Social worker. Service delivery is compromised by high staff turnover as well as lack of competent personnel in the social work institutions; vulnerability of families with complex needs thus requiring time bound complex solutions. This cannot be tackled by the few workers available; poor working conditions result in the workers having to bear with increasing caseloads without proper remuneration and flexible routines; increased caseloads with complex needs. These stem in part from the vulnerability of families where breadwinners are unable to provide sufficiently for their dependants. Complexity of these needs requires complex actions in their solutions which further demands time to solve them; reduction in the number of foster care parenting. Increased caseloads face a backlog of foster care parenting as less individuals sign up into foster care systems due to increased expenses and bureaucracies involved. Proposed Changes To Improve The Publics Perception Of Public Child Welfare Services In order to improve the public perception of public child welfare services, adequate training and employment should be done to increase the number of competent personnel in these institutions. This would effectively take into account the need to improve service delivery to cater for increasing cases related to child welfare (Weaver et al., 2006). Secondly, institutional changes that encompass policy development and implementation need to be adequately addressed to ensure systematic co-ordination in securing resources for affected families and children. Further more, compensation should be incorporated to promote foster care parenting o that foster families do not feel overburdened in taking care of the adopted children. Staff should also be compensated in situations where they have incurred extra expenses of both time and money in their quest to address underlying issues brought to them. Permanency Planning Weaver et al., (2006) defines permanency planning as a guiding principle intended to minimize the exit, entry and time spent in home care. It includes both legal and social efforts aimed at securing viable families for children. It further describes where a child will live after foster care. Foster Care System Foster care system refers to a system where a minor is taken up in a caregivers home. Such a caregiver is certified by the state and is referred to as a foster parent. The state and a child welfare institution engage in legal decisions affecting the minor while the foster parent contributes to the daily care of the minor and is compensated for extending such services by the state. This system is mostly short term in nature as the minor awaits permanent adoption or reunification (Ryan and Hughes, 1998) Career Prospects Five years after my graduation, I intend to become a social worker with a bias in child protection services. I will focus my attention mainly in child labor and female genital mutilation cases for the first three years. I will then establish an organization whose main mandate would be to address the above issues. References Ryan, J. and Hughes, R. (1998), Field Guides to Child Welfare (Vol II-XIII). Washington: CWLA Press Weaver, D. et al., (2006), Retention of Public Child Welfare Workers. Berkeley: California University

Hip-hop :: Papers

Hip-hop Recently, I took a walk around the floor on which I live and asked anyone who I found for their definition of "hip-hop." I wasn't able to ask everyone on the floor, but I really didn't need to either. From the 15 or so people I asked, I got a similar answer, and each was that which I expected to hear. Some of my floormates thought that hip-hop was rap music, others said it was both rap and R&B, and only one person had a good idea of what it actually is. Hip-hop is a culture, and there is a common misconception that hip-hop refers solely to a genre of music. The dictionary definition of hip-hop is "a subculture especially of inner-city youths whose amusements include rap music, graffiti, and break-dancing" (Mish 549). This is a pretty accurate definition of hip-hop. There is a lot more to hip-hop but the dictionary does a good job of giving it a brief definition. The definition explains why I know what hip-hop really is and also why I'm bothered when someone thinks hip-hop is the same as rap. I grew up and have lived my entire life in New York City, perhaps the most urban and diverse place to live in on Earth. It's not possible for a teenager to be more exposed to hip-hop than he is in New York City. I'm also a youth, and people in my age group are more exposed to the culture than those of any other age group. Hip-hop is simply more appealing to young people, but this is not to say that adults can't like hip-hop as well. My roommate said that he wishes he could know more about hip-hop, but where he's from it's simply not possible. He has been exposed to hip-hop more in the past two months than in the eighteen years of his life before that, simply because he has me for a roommate. This came as somewhat of a surprise to me, because I never knew that hip-hop was so non-existent in suburbs such as Mansfield, PA, where my roommate is from. My roommate is definitely not the only person at Penn State from a suburb, so there are many other students here who know even less about the culture than him. My goal, therefore, is to inform these people about hip-hop enough so that they realize there's a lot more to it than just rap music.

An Analysis of the First Two Acts of The Tempest Essay -- The Tempest E

      The first two acts of The Tempest share a couple of inconsequential similarities and have some very contrasting differences. The similarities are, on the whole, superficial: Both acts consist of just two scenes and both acts are of a similar length. However, the similarities end there.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The lengths of the scenes in each act differ somewhat: Act 1 has one extremely short scene and one very lengthy scene; Act 2 is composed of two scenes of similar length. Also, the tone of each act is very different, with Act 1 being serious and composed, whilst Act 2 is more comic, often descending into pure farce. Analysing one scene at a time will show just how different the two acts are.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Act 1, Scene 1 is entirely unlike the other three scenes in the first two acts. It is fast-paced, exciting and uncomplicated, allowing the audience to be drawn into the play before the more complex scenes begin. The only notable thing in this scene is the introduction of Gonzalo, who is shown to be a patient, calm and optimistic person. None of the other characters are defined particularly vividly, nor need they be - this scene is supposed to be action-oriented and too much characterisation and plotting would ruin the tense atmosphere.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Scene 2 contrasts greatly with the opening scene, being lengthy and dialogue-driven, with little action at all. This scene is very important to the rest of the play, as it sets up the main background to the main characters, as well as defining some of those same characters. It is Prospero's character which is explored the most in this scene; whilst he explains his history to Miranda, we begin to see the sort of person he is.       From his dialogue, one can... ...t to be highly entertaining. Whether one finds the first two acts entertaining or not, by the end of the second act many of the main characters and themes have already been well defined.    Works Cited and Consulted: Garnett, Richard. "Irving Shakespeare" The Tempest (and selected criticism). Charlotte Porter and Helen A. Clarke (eds.) Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 1903. Knight, G. Wilson. "Shakespearian Superman" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968 Murray, J. Middleton. "Shakespeare's Dream" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968 Palmer, D.J. Shakespeare's Later Comedies: An Anthology of Modern Criticism. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1971. Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. 1611. Ed. Stephen Orgel. New York: Oxford UP, 1994. Tillyard, E.M. "The Tragic Pattern" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968   

Critically Evaluate the Contributions of Functionalism to the Study of Society Essay

Critically evaluate the contributions of functionalism to the study of society. Functionalist theory is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It can be argued that the functionalist theory has made a significant contribution to the study of society. It originates from the work of Emile Durkheim who suggests that social order is possible and society remains stable due to the functioning of several institutions. Everything has a specific function in society and society will always function in harmony. The main institutions studied by functionalism are the family, the education system, religion and crime and deviance. Murdock argues that the family performs four basic functions in all societies – sexual, reproductive, economic and educational. These four basic functions are essential for social life since without the sexual and reproductive functions there would be no members of society, without the economic function life would cease and without education there would be no socialisation or culture. Without these four basic functions human society could not survive. The family does not perform these functions alone however it makes important contributions to them all. Murdock is often criticised for his picture of the family as he did not consider whether its functions could be performed by other social institutions and he does not examine alternatives to the family. Equally, Murdock illustrates the nuclear family as very harmonious and perfect. There are many ill-functioning families in society which Murdock fails to examine and explain. What is the function of families when the husband and wife fail to have an integrated division of labour and have a healthy sexual relationship? Talcott Parsons offers an alternative view of the functions of the family and suggests it serves two purposes: primary socialisation and the stabilisation of the adult personality. Primary socialisation refers to socialisation during the early years of childhood, which take place mainly within the family. This is important in contributing to society as our parents supposedly bring their offspring up to grow to be well-behaved, obedient individuals with the right values to help society function. The stabilisation of adult personalities emphasises on the marriage relationship and emotional security the couple provides for each other. This acts to counteract the stresses of everyday life and keep the personality stable. Parsons claims that the family therefore provides a context in which husband and wife can express their childish feelings, give and receive emotional support, recharge their batteries and so stabilise their personalities. However, Parsons’ views on the family are criticised for being incomplete and idealising the family with his picture of well-adjusted children and sympathetic spouses caring for each other unconditionally. It is a over-optimistic and modernist and has little relationship to reality, because as mentioned before, not all families function perfectly. Similarly to Murdock, Parsons also fails to examine alternatives to the family which may provide the same functions for the development of society. The overall functionalist theory on the family is criticised by Marxism, feminists and some postmodernists. A Marxist would argue that the function of the family is to serve capitalism. Some feminists would argue that the function of the family is for women to serve men and that families are so diverse it is hard to argue that the family has a purpose. Some postmodernists suggest that the nuclear family is not as common as it seems and that there are now many diversities of families due to cultural and social changes. These views are clearly in conflict with the views of functionalism; therefore it allows us to question their validity. Functionalism also has its set of views on the education system. Emile Durkheim claimed that the main function of education was to transmit society’s norms and values through generations. Social solidarity is essential for the welding of mass individuals into a united whole. Functionalists such as Durkheim argue that education builds a sense of commitment and belonging to a society and a belief that the whole of society is more important than a single individual. Durkheim argued, ‘to become attached to society, they will come to see that they are part of something larger themselves; they will develop a sense of commitment to the social group’. Durkheim also claimed that the school serves a function which cannot be provided by the family the peer group. Individuals must learn to cooperate with those who are neither their family nor their friends. In this way, children learn to respect authority figures, such as teachers, and get along with other members of society they would be forced to interact with in later life such as bosses and colleagues. These social interactions are essential for keeping society harmoniously balanced and functioning. Durkheim claimed that along with teaching us to interact with different social groups, education serves to strictly reinforce school rules and ensure that children realise that these should be followed. Punishments should reflect the seriousness of the damage done to the social group by the offence and teach individuals that it is wrong to act against the interests of the social group as a whole. In Durkheim’s words: ‘it is by respecting the school rules that the child learns to respect rules in general, that he develops the habit of self-control and restraint simply because he should control and restrain himself. It is the first initiation into the austerity of duty. Serious life has now begun’. Durkheim finally argues that education teaches individuals specific skills necessary for their future occupations. Schools transmit both general values which provide the necessary skills for social survival. Industrial society is united by value consensus and a specialised division of labour whereby specialists combine to produce goods and services. Education is essential for this because it trains individuals to develop the skills which will be useful for their future occupations. In the current education system children are given the opportunity to learn technical and practical skills as well as academic skills which all come together to help society function. However, Durkheim is criticised for several reasons. Firstly, he assumes that societies have a shared culture which can be transmitted through the education system. Britain for example is now multi-cultural and it is therefore debatable whether there is a single culture on which schools could base their curriculum. If a school bases their curriculum on a single culture they are often accused of ethnocentrism, which is a difficult issue to overcome when schools bring together children of many different cultural backgrounds and ethnicities. Secondly, his views on the education system are in conflict with those of Marxism, which argues that education serves to transmit a dominant culture and serve the interests of the ruling class rather than the members of society as a whole. Finally, functionalism has its views on the way crime and deviance applies to society. Functionalism looks at society as a whole and looks for the source of deviance in the nature of society rather than in the individual. Social control mechanisms such as the police and courts are argued to be necessary to keep order in society. Durkheim argues that crime is inevitable because not every member of society can be equally committed to the collective sentiments of society. Durkheim also claims that crime can be functional because all social change begins with some form of deviance and a certain amount of social change is healthy for society. Merton, 1968, argued that deviance results from the culture and structure of society itself. Since members in society are placed in different positions in the social structure, for example different social classes, they do not all have equal opportunities. This situation can generate deviance – for example, members of the lower classes, such as the working or under class may resort to crime due to their position in the social structure because they are deprived of things essential for survival. Merton also outlined the five responses to cultural goals: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion. The first way in which society can respond to cultural goals is through conformity. Members of society conform both to success goals and to the normative means of reaching them. They strive for success by accepted means. The second response is innovation in which individuals reject normative means of reaching success and turn to deviant means such as crime. Merton argues that members of the lower social strata are more likely to select this route to success. Merton claims that they have little access to conventional and legitimate means of becoming successful. Low qualifications mean little opportunity for jobs and advancement since their route to success is blocked. Therefore they turn to crime, which promises greater rewards than legitimate means. Membership of the lower social strata is not alone enough to produce deviance however – pressures from society contribute to an individuals need to deviate. The third response is known as ritualism. Those who select this as an alternative are deviant because they have largely abandoned the commonly held success goals. Members of the lower middle class who have less opportunity than other members of the middle class are likely to take the path of ritualism. However, they have been strongly socialised to conform to social norms so they do not turn to crime. They scale down or abandon their success goals. Ritualists are deviant because they have rejected the success goals held by most members of society. The fourth and least common response is retreatism which applies to ‘psychotics, chronic alcoholics and drug addicts’. They have strongly internalised both the cultural goals and institutionalised means, however they are unable to achieve success. They resolve their situation by abandoning both the goals and the means of reaching them. They ‘drop out’ of society defeated and resigned by their failure. They are deviant in two ways: they have rejected both the cultural goals and the institutionalised means. The fifth and final response is rebellion. This involves both rejection of both success goals and institutionalised means and replaces them with their own different goals and means. They wish to create a new society. Merton says ‘it is typically members of a rising class rather than the most depressed strata who organise the resentful and the rebellious into a revolutionary group’. Hannon and Defronzo, 1998, carried out a study which gives empirical support for Merton’s five stages. In a study of 406 metropolitan counties in the USA, they found that those with higher levels of welfare provision had lower levels of crime. They argued that the welfare provision opened up opportunities for people to achieve the goal of material success. They argued that the welfare provision opened up opportunities for people to achieve the goal of material success through legitimate means and therefore reduced anomie and the crime which could result from it. However, critics have argued that Merton’s five stages neglect the power relationships in society as a whole within which deviance and conformity occur. Taylor, 1971, criticised Merton for not carrying out his analysis far enough and failing to consider who makes the laws and who benefits from them. The whole game may have been rigged by the powerful with rules that guarantee their success. These rules may be the laws of society. Merton is also criticised for being deterministic because it fails to explain why some people who experience effects of anomie do not become criminals or deviant. It over-exaggerates working-class crime and underestimates middle-class and white collar crime. Furthermore, Taylor, Walton and Young, 1973, criticise that Merton’s theory cannot account for politically motivated criminals such as freedom fighters who break the law because of commitment to their cause rather than the effects of anomie. In conclusion, functionalism has made great contribution to the study of society as it offers explanations for the functions of the major institutions in society. However, the whole functionalist theory is based around the idea that these institutions serve to keep society functioning and harmonious. Almost all their ideas are criticised by Marxism, which suggests the complete opposite – that all institutions serve the interests of the ruling class and capitalism rather than serving the needs of the general members of society as a whole. As shown above, we can compare perspectives such as Marxism, feminism and postmodernism with functionalism to assess its advantages and disadvantages. The functionalist theory is an important perspective widely covering most aspects of society, however it falls flat where it is criticised for being too deterministic and failing to consider the chaos and disorganisation in society.